Jefferson tired of the rigorous demands of America's highest office and left the presidency after two terms. During the election of 1808, he supported the nomination of Secretary of State James Madison. The two Virginians shared many characteristics and ideals. Both men relied more on their intellect and writing skills than on their speaking abilities, and both favored negotiating techniques over military supremacy. Although the embargo was unpopular with Americans, Madison and the Republican Party still captured an overwhelming number of votes, finishing strong in the South and West to win the election.

The new president inherited a government that was operating at a deficit and strained by tense foreign relations. The war between France and Britain saddled Americans with a number of restrictions. The British, acting under the “Orders in Council,” punished Americans who traded directly with France, and the French punished Americans who traded with Britain under orders referred to as the “Milan Decree.”

To revive the sluggish economy, Congress passed a bill introduced by Representative Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina. Labeled “Macon's Bill No. 2,” the measure eliminated all restrictions on commerce with France and England. It also stated that if either France or England revoked its sanctions against the U.S., America would re-establish its embargo against the other nation. Napoleon agreed to lift the French sanctions, and Madison restored the embargo against England. However, the French ruler never intended to follow through on his promise. He wanted to make America create a blockade against England so he could avoid involving his own forces. Madison realized that the embargo ended America's neutrality, and war with Britain was now a distinct possibility.

Relations with England continued to deteriorate when many Americans, mostly those located in the western territory, accused the British of inciting Indian resistance. Settlers encountered hostile Indians intent on recovering land they believed was stolen. The leaders behind the latest revolt were Shawnee chief Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa, known as “The Prophet” because he claimed to have religious visions. The two worked to unify the tribes east of the Mississippi against the white "invaders."

In late 1811, William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory, assembled a small army and advanced on Prophet Town, a settlement located at the junction of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers that served as headquarters for the Indians. While Tecumseh traveled to recruit followers, Tenskwatawa and a few braves attacked Harrison and his men. Although the Indians were overpowered, the Battle of Tippecanoe pushed Tecumseh to join forces with Britain against the United States. In the end, it was the Americans who actually helped the British-Indian alliance become reality. Britain's constant attempts to challenge U.S. authority and destabilize the unity of the states angered Americans and pushed the United States closer to war.

Support for Jefferson's strategy of peaceful coercion to manage international affairs began to weaken. War, Madison believed, was necessary to defend the future of the republican experiment and to prove to the world the viability of democracy as a form of government. On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress to declare war on England. After two weeks of debate, Congress narrowly approved his request.

The vote divided the House and the Senate. Republicans in the south and west backed their president's decision to use force, while Federalists in New England questioned the judgment to engage the largest navy in the world in battle. Many Federalists, intent on making sure that Madison's plan failed, secretly provided British troops with food, supplies, and money. New England governors even refused to allow their militia to serve outside their own states. The president was feeling pressure from both the enemy and his own countrymen.

In Europe, Napoleon's control of commercial outlets left England's economy in dire straights. Manufacturers pleaded for the repeal of the Orders in Council so they would once again have access to the American market. Lord Castlereagh, England's new foreign secretary, finally agreed to suspend the Orders. However, the decision came five days after Congress voted for war.

Copyright 2006 The Regents of the University of California and Monterey Institute for Technology and Education